Cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of Fe, Cu, and Ag nanoparticles synthesized with sage (Salvia officinalis) extract on rainbow trout gonad cell line
Aquatic Toxicology, vol.298, 2026 (SCI-Expanded, Scopus)
- Publication Type: Article / Article
- Volume: 298
- Publication Date: 2026
- Doi Number: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2026.107903
- Journal Name: Aquatic Toxicology
- Journal Indexes: Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED), Scopus, Artic & Antarctic Regions, BIOSIS, Chemical Abstracts Core, Chimica, EMBASE, Environment Index, Geobase, Greenfile, MEDLINE, Zoological Record, Academic Search Ultimate (EBSCO), Engineering Source (EBSCO)
- Keywords: Apoptosis, Biological synthesis, Cytotoxicity, Green synthesis, Metal nanoparticles, RTG-2 cell line, Salvia officinalis
- Erciyes University Affiliated: Yes
Abstract
The rapid increase in the use of nanoparticles in various sectors necessitates understanding their potential biological effects on aquatic organisms. In particular, the biosafety profiles of plant-derived biosynthetic nanoparticles, developed as environmentally friendly alternatives, are still known to a limited extent. In this study, the cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and silver (Ag) nanoparticles obtained by green synthesis using sage ( Salvia officinalis ) leaf extract on rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) gonad cell line (RTG-2) were investigated. The structural and morphological properties of the synthesized nanoparticles were characterized by UV–Visible spectroscopy, FT-IR, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM)-EDX, and zeta potential analyses. Cell viability and apoptosis-related protein responses were assessed following nanoparticle exposure. The results showed that all metal nanoparticles produced a concentration-dependent cytotoxic effect in RTG-2 cells. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) exhibited the strongest cytotoxic effect, significantly reducing cell viability, especially at concentrations of 50 µg/mL and above. Apoptosis analysis revealed that different toxicity mechanisms were activated depending on the metal type. While AgNPs strongly suppressed BCL2 expression and appeared to enhance apoptosis-related responses, CuNPs and FeNPs were mainly associated with p53-mediated cellular stress signaling. In conclusion, it was shown that sage-derived metal nanoparticles produced metal-type-specific cytotoxic and apoptotic effects in fish gonad cells; these findings highlight the necessity of species- and metal-based approaches in the environmental risk assessment of green synthesis nanoparticles.